NOTES ON INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS FROM NOVEMBER 23 TO DECEMBER 23
Prepared by Allan Westcott, Professor, U.S. Naval Academy
WORK OF LAUSANNE CONFERENCE
Problems Considered.—The chief problems in the Near Eastern settlement taken up at Lausanne were as follows: (1) the control of the Straits; (2) the protection of Christian minorities in Turkey, involving the Turkish claim to western Thrace and the expulsion of Greeks from Constantinople and elsewhere; (3) the question of trading privileges and in particular the control of the Mosul oil fields in the northern part of the British mandate of Iraq or Mesopotamia. Russian delegates were allowed to take part only in the discussion of control of the Straits.
Trading Privileges.—On November 25 Ambassador Child stated that the position of the United States in the Turkish question was for the "open door" and opposed to any settlement, private treaty, or bargain, which should give to one nation or group of nations special privileges in the exploitation of Turkish trade or resources. England two days later declared her acceptance and support of this principle.
This declaration had a special bearing on the disputed Mosul oil region near the boundary between Iraq and Turkey. In a later statement, Great Britain made it clear that she did not surrender her special claims to concessions in this region granted prior to the war and accepted by France and Italy in the agreement at San Remo.
Freedom of the Straits.—The original Turkish proposal, strongly backed by Russia, was that the Straits should be opened to commerce, closed to war vessels in peace or war, and fortified by the Turks as in the past. Turkey, however, at once showed willingness to compromise with the Allies' demand for demilitarization of the Straits and free passage for naval vessels, as well as merchant craft, in both peace and war. The United States representatives favored complete freedom of the Straits, but in a note presented by Ambassador Child stated their preference for supervision by Turkey rather than an international commission created by the League of Nations. This view was disregarded, and upon the insistence of the Western powers the Turkish delegates on December 21 signified acceptance of the following plan (in summary):
A. freedom of Straits
I. To all merchant vessels and civilian airships, complete in time of peace, and complete also in time of war, except that if Turkey is a belligerent she may enforce her rights under international law to stop enemy and contraband trade.
II. To all war vessels and military airships, complete in time of peace by day and night, with the limitation that no power can send through the Straits a fleet stronger than the strongest fleet of the Black Sea States at the time.
In time of war, with Turkey neutral, complete freedom, with the same limitation as in the preceding paragraph. (While this would seem to limit the size of the entering fleet to that of the strongest of the Black Sea powers, it is further provided, somewhat obscurely, that "These limitations will not be applicable to a belligerent power to the detriment of its belligerent rights in the Black Sea.")
With Turkey a belligerent, the privilege to Turkey of fortifying the Straits to prevent the passage of enemy ships, provided this does not interfere with the passage of neutral war vessels.
B. Demilitarized Zones
I. All the waters from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea; all the Gallipoli peninsula, and a strip twenty kilometers deep on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles; all the islands in Marmora: on the Bosporus, strips fifteen kilometers deep on both shores: the islands of Samothrace, Lemmos, Imbros, Teneados, and Rabbit in the Aegean.
Turkey to have freedom to pass armed forces through the demilitarized zones, to use the Straits for her fleet and for a naval base, to have a garrison of 12,000 in Constantinople.
Turkey to be free to fortify the Straits in time of war.
C. The Straits Commission will consist of representatives of Turkey, England, France, Italy, Japan, Russia, Rumania, Greece, Bulgaria, Jugoslavia and also the United States if she chooses, with the Turkish representative as president.
Protection of Minorities.—The Turkish proposal of a plebiscite in Western Thrace was rejected. Turkey subsequently showed willingness to accept the Allied solution providing for a twenty kilometer demilitarized zone between Eastern and Western Thrace along the Maritza River, with an exit to the Aegean for Bulgaria via the railway through this zone to the port of Dedeaghatch. Both Lord Curzon and Ambassador Child made strong statements insisting upon the protection of Christian minorities in Turkey, On December 14 Ismet Pasha agreed that Turkey would join the League of Nations and that the Christian minorities in Turkey should be protected by the same guarantees that were provided by the League for minorities in countries of Central Europe. This indeed was the original Turkish position, in opposition to special surveillance by a League Commission in Constantinople.
Greek Leaders Put to Death.—On November 28, by order of a Greek military tribunal, former Premier Gounaris and five of his Cabinet, together with the former head of the army in Asia Minor, were put to death. Two other generals were sentenced to penal servitude for life. The charges against the cabinet members were that they had by violent means stifled public opinion, concealed the danger arising from Constantine's restoration in order to maintain themselves in power, and by their pretended offensive against Constantinople, fatally weakened the forces in Asia Minor. Prince Andrew, brother of Constantine, escaped punishment by the defense that as a general he was a figurehead without real responsibility.
Efforts were made by the diplomatic corps in Athens to prevent the executions. The British and other governments immediately afterward broke off diplomatic relations with the Greek government.
REPARATIONS AND ALLIED DEBTS
Decision Postponed at London.—A meeting of the French, British, and Italian premiers was held in London on December 10-11. Revised German proposals for a reparations' settlement presented by Chancellor Cuno was declared unsatisfactory and a reply was sent to that effect. In fact the German proposals merely asked for at least a two-year moratorium and stabilization of the mark by foreign and internal loans.
In view of the plainly stated disapproval of both Great Britain and Italy, Premier Poincare was led to postpone his proposed occupation of the Ruhr region as a protective guarantee. Premier Bonar Law set the Balfour note aside and indicated in general terms his willingness to consider cancellation of the French debt to England provided this would lead to a settlement of the whole reparations question satisfactory to England.
The proposed Brussels Financial Conference was called off and a general conference was set for January 2 in Paris, to reach definite decisions before January 15.
Reparations Settlement Before Loan.—The return of Ambassador Harvey for consultation in Washington, and statements from official sources in Washington led to a general belief that the American government was about to take an active part in the reparations settlement. During a trip to Washington in December, Mr. J. Pierport Morgan was consulted by the German Ambassador regarding the possibility of a foreign loan to Germany.
On December 18 the J.P. Morgan Company announced that their attitude regarding a German loan was the same as last summer, that is, that no such loan could be considered "unless and until the reparations question was settled." The United States government on the same date made a similar announcement.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
Irish Free State Established.—On December 5 the Irish Free State Constitution Bills passed the House of Lords, received the royal assent, and became the law of the land. Timothy Healy, an Irish lawyer and politician, associated from Parnell's time with the movement for Irish separation, was appointed Governor General. On December 12 the Irish Senate and Assembly met in joint session to hear the King's message and the Governor General's opening address.
During December the Free State took more drastic measures against republican insurgents. After the murder of Brigadier General Hales on December 8, the Government on the following day put to death four irregular leaders who had been in prison since the capture of the Four Courts last July.
RUSSIA AND NORTH EUROPE
Failure of Disarmament Conference.—A conference on limitation of armaments met in Moscow on December 2 with representatives of Finland, Esthonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. Rumania refused to attend unless Russia recognized Rumanian annexation of Bessarabia. The armies of the six smaller states were estimated at about 505,000; that of Russia at somewhat less than 1,500,000, with a field army of about 800,000. Russia proposed to cut this to 200,000, or seventy-five per cent, if the other states would make corresponding reductions. This the smaller powers refused to do without guarantees against attack. Hence the conference ended without results, though Russia is likely to make reductions in any case owing to the cost of feeding troops.
Polish President Assassinated.—On December 16, one week after his election. President Gabriel Narutowitz of Poland was shot and killed by an insane artist. Narutowitz, a relative of General Pilsudski, was' elected by a small margin of votes supplied by alien minority parties in Parliament. He was opposed by the Nationalists. In subsequent elections held on December 20, Stanislas Wojcieschowski, a moderate of the Farmers Party, was chosen to fill the vacant presidency.
RATIFICATION OF NAVAL TREATIES
France Chamber Delays Ratification.—Paris, Dec. 14.—A renewal of the Government's promise that the Washington Naval Treaties would shortly be brought before the Chamber for debate, was made today by the Minister of Marine during a discussion of the naval estimates for the next year.
The discussion will not come before January at the earliest, and then only if the commissions are finished with their work.
M. Briand, however, had a word to say in favor of discussion of the naval accord as soon as possible. At Washington, he said, the naval problem had been studied from two points of view, offensive and defensive. So far as the offensive was concerned France had shown herself willing to concede every demand. If there had been a fluctuation of opinion it was because it was wished by some to bind France to a proposition between offensive and defensive tonnage. On that point, he continued, France did not wish to give way.
"We have pointed out the world situation," he said, "and shown that if we have no doubts about the intentions of our friends and allies, the state of the whole world is not quite so reassuring. The possibility of our adversaries constructing large numbers of light ships and the extent of our coasts are for us very imperious reasons for not limiting construction of a defensive nature, as our national sovereignty is at stake. Our English, American and Japanese friends have since taken this into account and the polemics of a year ago are now forgotten."
The Minister of Marine, thanking Mr. Briand for his intervention, declared his view was that of the Government.
Coming the day after publication of the report of the Appropriations. Committee, the House of Representatives debate shows exactly how France will regard a proposed new conference at Washington to limit auxiliary naval construction, on which no limit was placed last year. The French argument will be that the whole program of light cruisers and submarines now being budgeted for within the financial possibility for construction in France in the next ten years are simply defensive weapons.—15 December, New York Times.
FAR EAST
China Takes Over Shantung.—On December 10 Japan evacuated Kiao-chau and turned over the civil and military administration to the Chinese government. The final arrangement was that China should pay Japan forty million yen for the Shantung Railway in fifteen-year Chinese Treasury notes at six per cent, and sixteen million yen for public property in Kiao-chau. At the time of the evacuation, Chinese bandits in the Shantung region threatened to take possession of the city of Tsing-tau.
In the meantime the Chinese government at Peking has weakened and swung back into the hands of the military leaders. Premier Wang Chungtau and Foreign Minister Wellington Koo were impeached after scandals connected with a loan from the Sino-Italian Bank, and on December 19 General Chang Shao-tseng became premier with the support of General Tsao Kun and other militarist elements in Peking.
LATIN AMERICA
Central American Conference.—The Conference of Central American States meeting in Washington, voted on December 18 to postpone for a year the question of political union, leaving the matter to be studied and reported upon by a sub-committee. The conference then adjourned pending the completion of a report by the sub-committee on plans for a tribunal to settle disputes among the powers concerned.