NOTES ON INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS FROM OCTOBER 22, TO NOVEMBER 23
Prepared by Allan Westcott, Professor, U. S. Naval Academy
TURKEY AND THE NEAR EAST
Sultan's Rule Ended.—On November 1 the Angora Nationalist Assembly passed a resolution which dethroned the Suhan, asserted the right of the Assembly to elect a new Caliph as head of the Mohammedan Church, and declared the old regime in Constantinople at an end. The resolution further stated that it was the intention of the new Government to consider null and void all treaties, agreements, etc., negotiated by the Constantinople Government since March 15, 1920.
Rafet Pasha, the new Nationalist Governor of Constantinople, on November 3 assumed control in the city with popular support and without serious disturbances, the Allied High Commissioners accepting the change. At the same time the Nationalist authorities called upon the Commissioners to turn over control and end their military occupation of the city, and further demanded that warships seek Turkish consent before entering the Dardanelles. While adopting a conciliatory attitude, the Commissioners refused to surrender control, and were later supported in this position by a joint note from their governments. The tension finally decreased when the Angora Government on November 15 agreed to accept the presence of Allied troops under the Mudania Agreement, while protesting against interference in internal affairs.
Flight of Sultan.—On November 17 the deposed Sultan, Mohammed VI, secretly escaped from his palace in Constantinople to a British battleship which took him to Malta. The Angora Government on the next day announced that the Crown Prince Abdul Medjid, cousin of the former Sultan, had been elected Caliph.
Allies Agree on Policy.—Following the Nationalist coup d’état in Constantinople, Great Britain insisted that the Lausanne Conference on the Near East be postponed from November 13 until November 20, and that in the meantime the Allied Powers seek agreement upon a common eastern policy. On November 18 Premier Poincare and Lord Curzon engaged in a five-hour conversation at Lausanne, which was announced to have "confirmed Allied agreement on all points." Great Britain was supported by Italy in urging that Allied troops should remain in control of the Dardanelles for at least two years, until the League of Nations control (or such other as provided) should be in working order. This was justified as a precaution against a Turco-Bolshevist combination that might upset all southeastern Europe. Later Premier Mussolini of Italy joined the preliminary conferences. The main conference was formally opened on November 20. In spite of many signs of cross-purposes among the Allies, France appeared genuinely disturbed by the high-handed policies of the Nationalists, and by the bad example to Germany set by their success.
American Position Stated.—The United States was represented at the Lausanne Conference by Richard Washburn Child, Ambassador to Italy, Joseph C. Grew, Minister to Switzerland, and Rear Admiral Mark L. Bristol, American High Commissioner at Constantinople. In an aide-memoire to the powers at the conference, Secretary Hughes refused full participation on the grounds that the United States had not been at war with Turkey and did not wish to share responsibility for the final peace settlement. The note, however, gave the following summary of matters "of particular American concern":
"2. The protection, under proper guarantees, of philanthropic, educational and religious institutions.
"3. Appropriate undertakings in regard to the freedom of opportunity, without discrimination or special privilege, for commercial enterprise.
"4. Indemnity for losses suffered by Americans in Turkey as a result of arbitrary and illegal acts.
"5. Suitable provisions for the protection of minorities.
"6. Assurances touching the freedom of the Straits.
"7. Reasonable opportunity for archaeological research and study."
American Trade in Near East.—In connection with Secretary Hughes' statement of American interests, it may be noted that American trade with Turkey has increased from $3,300,000 in 1914, to $42,200,000 in 1920. This has been accomplished largely through the efforts of the American High Commissioner, with the assistance of American vessels in Turkish ports and of naval radio for business communications formerly carried via England.—From Bulletin of National Association of Manufacturers.
GREAT BRITAIN
Election a Conservative Victory.—The general parliamentary election held in the United Kingdom on November 15, resulted in a remarkable victory for Premier Bonar Law and the Conservative Party, giving them a majority of 85 over all other parties combined. Returns for 605 of the 615 seats were as follows:
Conservatives 355
Asquith Liberals 57
Lloyd George Liberals 42
Labor 141
Others 10
In the London Observer Mr. J.L. Garvin praised Mr. Bonar Law's unsensational and dignified attitude in the campaign. He attributed the result to (1) universal dislike of coalition government, (2) a strong anti-socialist and anti-radical swing, observable in England as elsewhere in Europe, and (3) desire for a more settled policy in foreign as well as home affairs. Parliament opened on November 21, with the ratification of the Irish Constitution as its first business. T. Ramsey MacDonald (Labor) became leader in the parliamentary opposition.
Bonar Law's Ministry.—The Bonar Law Cabinet, the first purely Conservative Ministry in seventeen years, was announced on October 25, with the Premier as First Lord of the Treasury, Lord Curzon continuing as Foreign Minister, the Earl of Derby as Secretary of War, and Lieutenant-Colonel L.C. Amery as First Lord of the Admiralty. Colonel Amery had previously acted as Secretary of the Admiralty.
Dail Adopts Irish Constitution.—The new Irish Constitution finally passed the Dail Eireann without substantial changes on October 25. The Constitution provides religious freedom, universal suffrage, a bicameral parliament (senators for 12 years), free elementary education, and establishment of the Irish Free State as "a co-equal member of the community of nations forming the British Commonwealth of Nations."
ITALY
Fascisti Supreme.—Following a Fascisti order for general mobilization throughout the country, Premier Facto and his cabinet gave up their offices. After some talk of recalling Giolitti or Orlando, the King on October 30, called upon Benito Mussolini, the Fascisti leader, to head the Government, thus reorganizing the success of the "Fascisti Revolution." In the cabinet which Mussolini organized there were five Fascisti, two Catholics, three Democrats, one National, one Liberal, and General Diaz and Vice Admiral di Revel as Ministers of Army and Navy.
The Fascisti movement is viewed as an organization chiefly of the youth of Italy, to control the government for the pursuit of a strongly nationalist policy abroad and a firm rule in domestic affairs. It drew many supporters from military officers after the reduction of military forces, and was looked upon as anti-radical. The organization, however, has interfered in industrial disputes on the side of labor, its leader is a former socialist, and it has the support of the Federation of Industry. At the opening of Parliament Mussolini spoke as follows of his foreign policy:
"In the same way as Italy does not intend to tear up treaties, so she does not intend to abandon her Allies, but Italy cannot permit herself the luxury of too much altruism. My formula for foreign politics is simple: 'We give nothing if we receive nothing in return. Whoever wants from us concrete proofs of friendship must also give us such proofs of friendship."
GERMANY AND NORTH EUROPE
Cabinet Reorganized.—The Wirth Ministry in Germany resigned on November 14, after the demand of the German People's Party (headed by Stresemann) for a full share in the Government, and the refusal of the United Socialists to take part in a coalition cabinet with the Nationalists included. Since the assassination of Rathenau, the Wirth Ministry had lacked direction, and its fall was anticipated.
President Ebert called upon Wilhelm Cuno, Director General of the Hamburg American Steamship Company, to form a new ministry, in the hope that a non-partisan business man might get together a working coalition.
Reparations Solution Delayed.—On October 24 the Allied Reparations Commission decided to go again to Berlin, the British delegation agreeing to the French view that Germany should be declared in voluntary default, provided reforms were not carried out within reasonable time. No results were obtained from negotiations in Berlin, however, other than another German proposal for a 500,000,000 gold mark international loan to help stabilize the mark. This proposal disregarded the majority report of the committee of foreign experts called upon by Germany. This report recommended at least a two-year moratorium, but declared that permanent improvement could be brought about only by industrial and budgetary developments within Germany. The Reparations Commission delayed further action pending the change of ministry.
Polish Elections.—The Polish elections held on November 5 and 12 resulted in a close division of both lower and upper houses between conservatives on the one hand, and members of the Farmer, Socialist, and Labor parties on the other. This left the fate of President Pilsudski undecided, since the election of the new president is by the Senate and Diet in joint session. The balance of power was held by the coalition of minor nationalities, with a total of eighty-three votes, which were likely to be given to Pilsudski.
UNITED STATES AND LATIN AMERICA
America to Join World Court.—Pre-election speeches of Secretary Hughes and a report from the White House on October 31, indicated that negotiations were under way to enable the United States to participate in the League Court of International Justice. The only stipulation on the part of the American Government was a voice in the nomination and selection of judges.
World Court for Trade Disputes.—Washington, Nov. 5.—Plans have been perfected by the International Chamber of Commerce, the American section of which has headquarters in Washington, for the establishment of a new international court of arbitration for the settlement and adjustment of commercial disputes between different countries.
The new tribunal will be the result of several years study of international commercial arbitration and will be independent of all agencies established by Governments. The administration of the court will be directed from the headquarters of the International Chamber at 32 Jean Gonjon, Paris. Twenty-seven nations in addition to the United States will name groups of representative business men to serve on the court. These will be Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Costa Rica, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Esthonia, France, Great Britain, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Indo-China, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Soudan, Sweden, Switzerland, the South African Union and Jugo-Slavia.
"It has long been recognized," stated A.C. Bedford, Chairman of the American section of the International Chamber in announcing tonight the establishment of the new International Court, "that owing to differences in language and laws, the great distances involved, and limitations on means of communication, the ordinary legal procedure of settling disputes between nationals of different countries is fraught with extreme difficulty, expense and delay. From its inception the International Chamber of Commerce has believed that one of the greatest services it could render the commerce of the world would be to formulate a new plan whereby commercial disputes might be adjusted economically, promptly and equitably without recourse to the usual legal agencies."—New York Times, November 6.
Central American Arms Conference.—On October 23 the U.S. State Department announced that an invitation had been extended to five republics of Central America: Guatemala, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa Rica, to confer in Washington on December 4, for limitation of armaments. Formal acceptances and names of delegations were later announced. The agenda provided the following topics: (1) Negotiation of a treaty to make effective the general treaties of peace of 1907 among the five republics; (2) measures' for limitation of armaments; (3) plan for arbitration of disputes. The conference grew out of a meeting of the presidents of Nicaragua, Honduras, and Salvador on the U.S. cruiser Tacoma in Fonseca Bay, August 20, 1920.
Mexico Protests Interference.—In the Mexican Chamber of Deputies on November 17, President Obregon read correspondence between American Charge d' Affaires Summerlin and the Mexican Foreign Minister relating to Mexican oil legislation, and protested against what he declared to be American interference in Mexican legislative processes. It was voted that all South and Central American states be informed of Mexican resentment at such censorship.
It appeared that a Mexican act of congress had been given to the American Ministry before its passage, and sent to the U.S. State Department, and that Secretary Hughes had criticized its provisions in the belief that this was the desire of the Mexican Government.
Control of Chinese Railway Ended,—On October 31, in line with the action of Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan, the United States Government informed China of the ending of its share of the control of the Chinese Eastern Railway. This control was taken over by an Allied board at the time of the Allied military occupation of Siberia, and was ended with the withdrawal of Japanese forces from Vladivostok. Attention was called to resolutions adopted at the Washington Conference requesting China to improve the administration of the railway.